In what ways do they differ in terms of how they look upon women and life in general?

Parvez, a Punjabi immigrant, has become thoroughly assimilated into Western society. Though raised as a Muslim, his attachment to his religion is tenuous, to say the least. This mainly arises from his experiences as a child, when he was humiliated by a Moulvi—a Muslim doctor of the law—while studying the Koran. As part of his Western lifestyle he eats pork, drinks alcohol, and consorts with prostitutes, all modes of behavior strictly forbidden by the Koran. His attitude to women is thoroughly modern, in sharp contrast to that of his son, Ali, after Ali becomes a devout Muslim.
Ali comes to hate what he sees as the shallow materialism of the West. To him, it's the exact opposite of everything set out in the Koran. Islam is a way of life, not an optional extra; it's something you have to live out on a daily basis. This means, among other things, growing a beard, refraining from drinking alcohol, and no longer having casual relationships with women. Ali comes to adopt a regressive attitude towards women. We see this in how he relates to Bettina, the prostitute. As far as Ali is concerned, Bettina is representative of Western women in general. Though they may not engage in paid sex work, their sexually liberated behavior is little better than prostitution in his eyes. Women, for Ali, should be chaste and pure, their world confined to the home in the traditional roles of dutiful mother and wife.

What do lines 5-6 of the "Morning Song" (by Sylvia Plath) mean by saying "your nakedness shadows our safety?"

Sylvia Plath's "Morning Song" portrays a scene of childbirth and offers the mother's perspective on her newborn child. The poem begins with the child's birth in the first two stanzas. Plath writes,

Love set you going like a fat gold watch.
The midwife slapped your footsoles, and your bald cry
Took its place among the elements.
Our voices echo, magnifying your arrival. New statue.
In a drafty museum, your nakedness
Shadows our safety. We stand round blankly as walls. (1-6)

The baby enters the world, his/her time on earth beginning "like a fat gold watch." The baby is slapped into awareness by the midwife, and the baby's cry becomes part of the world his parents inhabit.
The second stanza contains the lines you are to analyze. In this stanza, the parents' reaction to the child's birth is conveyed using imagery and word choice related to a museum. This museum is "drafty" and silent. In this space, the parents' "voices echo," which only serves to further highlight the child's arrival. The baby is figuratively compared to a "New statue." Like a nude statue in a museum, the baby's "nakedness / Shadows our safety." This alliterative line is quite ambiguous. The word "safety" evokes a warm feeling, but "Shadows" is definitely more ominous. The parents' world seems darkened in some way by the arrival of the child. This could be because the parents now realize in a more direct way the responsibility of rearing the child. It could also be a result of the baby's birth making the adults reflect on their own mortality.
The speaker's ambivalence toward motherhood continues throughout the remainder of the poem. She is devoted to her child, waking at its cry and trying to soothe it. However, the imagery Plath uses in these stanzas suggest the mother feels distant from her child. She says that "A far sea moves in [her] ear" and that the child's sounds "rise like balloons" (12, 18). The distance of the sea that metaphorically sounds in the speaker's ear and the distance and departure conveyed by the simile of the balloons drifting away from the speaker, both suggest the speaker's ambivalence. Like the earlier image of the statue, these figurative comparisons tell the reader that the close bond we assume between mothers and children cannot always be simply assumed.

Describe the role of meiosis in producing sex cells for sexual reproduction

I do wish that meiosis was named something different, because students seem to get it confused with mitosis. The two processes are related in some ways, but the end product of meiosis is very different from that of mitosis. Mitosis will produce cells that have the full, diploid chromosome count.
Let's use a human cell for an example. Human cells contain 46 chromosomes. When a cell undergoes mitosis, each of the new daughter cells contains 46 chromosomes. Meiosis, on the other hand, won't produce cells with 46 chromosomes. Meiosis will produce cells that contain exactly half the diploid chromosome count. In the case of humans, meiosis produces four cells that each have 23 chromosomes. This is why meiosis is sometimes referred to as "reduction division."
The reduced chromosome count is critical for sexual reproduction, because sexual reproduction requires genetic information to come from two sources. Again, I'll use humans as an example. The resulting cell from meiosis is called a gamete. In females, the gamete is an ovum (egg), and in males it is a sperm cell. The sperm and the egg each contain 23 chromosomes. That's half the normal human number, so gametes are haploid cells. The sperm cell will join the egg cell for fertilization, and the chromosomes from the two gametes will be combined. The two haploid cells will have made a diploid cell, with 46 chromosomes. This is why sexual reproduction produces new genetic information. DNA is coming from two sources and gets shuffled around during meiosis, combining in new ways during fertilization.
https://www.mun.ca/biology/desmid/brian/BIOL2060/BIOL2060-20/CB20.html

What is the meaning of this quote by Karl Marx? "Capital is money, capital is commodities. By virtue of it being value, it has acquired the occult ability to add value to itself. It brings forth living offspring, or, at the least, lays golden eggs"

Marx is saying that capital, whether currency or commodity can add value upon itself to become more than it would be worth by itself. In business we call this "added value".  If you pay $.50 for water at your grocery store and sell it for $1 at a construction site, the currency has made more than it could have at the beginning. You doubled the value of your currency based upon its environment. Capital is an asset that increases or decreases based upon variable conditions. 
The end of the quote references that this is an almost magical quality.  Money is a tangible asset that you can hold in your hand that can generate more of itself or less of itself depending upon its use.  You cannot turn one gallon of water into two, but you can turn one dollar into two by using it in different circumstances.

By this quote, Marx means that money has value beyond just its monetary value. Instead, money can be converted into a process by which it is turned into a commodity. It is then capable of being turned back into money. Marx referred to this as the "process M-C-M," or money-capital-money. To him, the importance was that at the end of the equation the amount of money created is more than the original amount of money. Marx referred to the increase in the original value as the "surplus value." Capital is therefore a process rather than just an amount of money, and capital exists in different forms, including money, machines, factories, and means of production. The capitalist is always involved in the process of using money to make a profit. 
Because of the process of M-C-M, money acquires a kind of "occult" value, Marx writes with some degree of irony (according to Harvey; see the source below). As money that is invested often leads to increased money (for example, money deposited into a savings account increases in value), the process acquires a magical quality because the investor does not see the phase in which the money is turned into a commodity before generating more money. Instead, it seems like the money itself can lay a golden egg or cause its own increase. 
Source:
A Companion to Marx's Capital, Volume I, by David Harvey.

What are the primary principles of the Constitution, and what was their significance in shaping American government?

Generally speaking, there are seven principles of the Constitution. These principles serve as the basic foundation for the US system of government, which is a representative democracy, meaning the people vote for representatives to serve their interests in government. The seven major principles are popular sovereignty, republicanism, separation of powers, checks and balances, limited government, individual rights, and federalism. These principles are interconnected and operate together to shape the way both the federal and state governments work.
Popular sovereignty refers to the idea that the power and authority of the government comes from the will and consent of the people, in this case through elected representatives. Popular sovereignty in the US rests on the principle of republicanism, a system of government in which the people have certain rights (outlined specifically in the Bill of Rights) and vote for officials to represent them in government, thus granting consent to be governed. Individual rights are also important in republican governments—there are certain unalienable rights that the government cannot take away. This system creates a limited government, meaning the government is not all powerful but rather gets its authority from the people and their representatives. This principle also comes from the Enlightenment idea of the Social Contract: in forming a government, people enter into a contract. They give up some rights, such as being able to do whatever they please, in exchange for certain protections and guarantees from the government. If the government fails to uphold these guarantees, the people have the right to dissolve the government.
The final two principles are checks and balances and separation of power. The US has a federal system of government, meaning there are powers that the federal (national) government has, powers the state governments have, and powers that both the federal and state governments share (concurrent powers). For example, only the federal government, through Congress, can declare war. However, both the federal and state governments can tax citizens. Within both the federal and state governments, there is a separation of powers that establishes a system of checks and balances. Separation of powers divides the government into three branches with distinct functions: the legislative branch (Congress) makes laws, the executive branch (the president) enforces laws, and the judicial branch (the Supreme Court and lower courts) ensures laws are constitutional. Each branch has certain checks over the other branches to make sure no one branch has more power than the others. For example, the president can veto laws, but Congress can override vetoes if two-thirds of Congress votes to override the veto.

What issues did George Washington face trying to lead a Continental Army?

As with all armies, the Continental Army needed to be supplied on a regular basis with essential items such as food, clothing, and blankets. The position of Quartermaster-General, which still exists to this day, was established for this precise purpose. The problem was, however, that because of the radically decentralized system of government under the Articles of Confederation, the Quartermaster-General needed to rely on the individual states to provide him with the requisite supplies, and these were by no means always forthcoming.
The states jealously guarded their sovereignty and didn't take kindly to being told what to do, even if it was essential for the war effort. As there was very little spare gold or silver available in the colonies, the Quartermaster-General couldn't go over the heads of the states and purchase what he needed abroad. However, outside help was available in terms of military training, and this made George Washington's command of the Continental Army much easier.
The Prussian general Baron von Steuben offered his services to Washington to help him train and organize the Continental Army more effectively. As Washington's men often saw themselves primarily as fighting for their individual states, it was often difficult to organize them into a unified fighting unit. No one could deny that the Continental Army lacked bravery or ideological zeal, but they still needed to be organized into a more professional fighting force if they were to defeat the British. Thanks to a combination of Washington's military genius and von Steuben's flair for organization, the Continental Army became just such a force, enabling it to overcome the many restrictions imposed by a decentralized political system.

There were few challenges George Washington did not face while a leader in the Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was undermanned. Most of his troops had no regimented training or battlefield knowledge. Communication with other generals, strategists, or companies was a risk that took time. Getting a message to the right party without having a delay was accomplishing his task half way if he were expecting a reply! Whereas any of those issues alone would be difficult enough. These could be among the least of Washington's worries. According to George Washington's Mount Vernon Website, getting enough supplies was such a chronic undertaking, it was often debilitating. Ultimately, challenges like these have negative impacts on battle readiness and morale. The Site says, "He repeatedly had to exhort Congress and the thirteen states to remedy desperate shortages of men, shoes, shirts, blankets, and gunpowder (2019)". Since we know convincing congress is like moving mountains, winning these conflicts gave him hope succeeding in battles in the field.

The main issue was funding. The Articles of Confederation did not allow the national government to demand payment from any particular colony, and many soldiers went unpaid or without supplies for long periods of time. Throughout the time at Valley Forge, Washington wrote letters to the Continental Congress begging for funds and supplies for his men. This would continue after the war as many Revolutionary War veterans lost everything they owned due to debts and taxes.
Another issue was training. The Continental Army was expected to fight the strongest empire in the world in pitched battles. Another issue that affected training was that many of the state militias did not feel as though they had to fight outside their home state or listen to a commander from another state. Washington's greatest accomplishment early in the war was avoiding having his army destroyed in one battle. Through the help of foreign leaders such as Frederick von Steuben, Washington was able to train his army and instill higher morale and military discipline. This and valuable intelligence allowed Washington to win key battles against the British army at Trenton and Yorktown.

Whom does Pip’s sister invite to Christmas dinner? How do these guests treat Pip?

You can find the answer to this question in chapter four of the novel. Because it was Christmas Day, Mrs. Joe invites several members of the local community to dinner, namely: Uncle Pumblechook, who was Joe's uncle, a cornchandler; Mr. and Mrs. Hubble, the local wheelwright and his wife; and Mr. Wopsle, the clerk from the local church. Prior to the dinner, Joe and Pip attend church, but Mrs. Joe, being too busy with preparations to accompany them, goes only "vicariously" through their attendance.
Pip opens the door to the visitors as if this were the general habit of the household; although, the suggestion is that it was quite unusual. Uncle Pumblechook brings two bottles of wine to the dinner, calling Mrs. Joe "Mum" respectfully. However, Pip himself feels "in a false position" among the visitors, for various reasons: he is not allowed to speak; the table is too closely cramped; but, most of all, "they wouldn't leave me alone." Pip is continually pricked with "moral goads" from the visitors, who prevail upon Pip to "be grateful" and state that the young are "naterally wicious." Joe, who also clearly feels rather uncomfortable, attempts to console Pip by spooning gravy into his plate every time the conversation turns to the natural wickedness of children.