Polonius's death likely bothers Claudius primarily because he can assume that Hamlet meant to kill him instead. Polonius, while he can be played as corrupt or turning a blind eye to the unethical nature of the court, is fairly harmless to Hamlet by himself. He is also Ophelia's father. Thus, it seems unlikely that a sane Hamlet would initially kill Polonius instead of Claudius. If Hamlet is mad—we don't know whether Claudius believes this or not—then he might rashly kill anyone, including Gertrude or Claudius himself. Thus, the death of Polonius proves that it's extremely risky for Claudius to allow Hamlet to remain alive. Until Hamlet is exiled, dead, or ideally both, Claudius's life and his kingdom are in danger.
Polonius's death happens at the hands of Hamlet, not long after Hamlet has staged the mousetrap play. Claudius exposes his guilt at the play by reacting with shock and recognition to the reenactment of his murder of Hamlet's father.
Claudius knows that Hamlet knows that he murdered Hamlet's father.
Polonius is hiding behind an arras, or tapestry, when Hamlet stabs him. Hamlet couldn't see it was him who was in hiding, but Claudius knows that Hamlet was trying to kill him, not Polonius. Hamlet thought it was Claudius hiding there and spying on him, and Claudius understands this. He knows he is very lucky that Hamlet made a mistake or he, Claudius, would now be dead.
Obviously, it is bothersome to have a person like Hamlet trying to kill you in revenge for killing his father. Claudius knows he has to get rid of Hamlet quickly or Hamlet really will kill him.
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